Soil Management: Changes in Soil Properties
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Abstract
The soil nutrient changes under oil palm need to be examined to ensure agro-management practices go along the lines of sustainability and not harm the resource base on which the oil palm rests upon. As most large plantation houses carry out regular soil sampling of their fields for the diagnosis of fertilizer requirements and monitoring soil fertility, long-term data are available to study the soil nutrient changes of pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen, total and Bray-2 phosphate and exchangeable potassium and magnesium in different micro-sites (palm circles and interrows) and depths. The effects of time and different replanting practices on soil nutrient changes were also investigated. This study was restricted to the Ultisols in Johor.
Results indicated that soil pH, organic C and total N tended to decrease with time in the oil palm agro-ecosystem. However, the decline in soil pH was slight whereas those related to organic C and total N corresponded to the period where the oil palm biomass was burnt or partially burnt at replanting. The large increases in soil organic C with the current norm of zero burn replanting technique were favourable with regard to sustainability and land degradation. There were large positive changes in soil P and exchangeable K, which might be attributed to the applications of higher rates of phosphate rocks and K fertilizer especially from the 1990s following the results of fertilizer response trials. Exchangeable Mg tended to decrease with burn or partial burn replanting techniques but showed large increases in both micro-sites and soil depths with zero burn techniques. Excessive build-up of soil nutrients on the highly weathered tropical soils of Ultisols should be avoided due to their generally low nutrient holding capacity, which may increase the risk of pollution. On the other hand, nutrient depletion should also be prevented as they commonly lead to lower production in the long-term.
This study shows explicitly that the soil fertility status of the Ultisols under oil palm in Johor has been enhanced through current fertilizer management practices and zero burn replanting technique.
Reference
Ng PHC, Gan HH and Goh KJ (2004) Soil nutrient changes in Utisols under oil palm in Johor, Malaysia. In: Oils and Fats International Congress (OFIC) 2004 in module on Agriculture, Biotechnology and Sustainability (AB), 29-9 to 2/10 2004, PWTC, Kuala Lumpur: Preprint.
Note: The full list of references quoted in this article is available from the above paper.
Soil Profiles: Ulu Dong
Ulu Dong Series
The Ulu Dong Series is a member of the family of very fine, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic, red Tipik Lutualemkuts. It is developed over quartz-mica-schists. They are characterized here by their deep kandic horizons with a clay content of more than 60% with no significant decrease to 100 cm of the soil surface and their red to yellowish red colours. Structures are weak medium and coarse subangular blocky and consistence is friable. Patchy clayskins occur on ped faces. The CECclay is less than 16 cmol (+) in all horizons between 25 to 100 cm of the soil surface.
Type Location
The Ulu Dong Series were first described and studied by Lim (1977) near Dong village to the east of Raub. The above pedon was also described by Lim during the Detailed Reconnaissance Soil Survey of the KESEDAR Region, Ulu Kelantan (Lim et al. 1980) at the 57 km (36 milestone) Tanah Merah to Batu Melintang Road over quartz-mica-schists at an elevation of 103 m (340 feet) under secondary forest on hilly terrain. Location: Topographic Sheet 3867, 5°49′ N, 102°00′ E (Grid Reference 3867 – 440430 m).
Range in Characteristics
Little is known about the range in characteristics of the Ulu Dong Series. The main characteristics are that these soils must be deep and have a clay content of over 60% and the clay content should not decrease from the maximum by more than 20% within 100 cm of the soil surface. Some soils with about 55% clay have also been mapped as Ulu Dong Series in the past. Colours in the subsoils belong to the red colour class. Subsoil colours range from yellowish red (5YR4/6, 5/6, 5/8) to red (2.5YR3/6, 4/6, 4/8, 5/6, 5/8, 6/6, 6/8) to light red (2.5YR7/6, 7/8). The colours normally become redder with depth. Structures are weak coarse and medium subangular blocky and consistence is friable. Clayskins occur on ped faces. Mottling is rare and if present is faint.
Competing Soils and Their Differences
Soils of the Ulu Dong Series are likely to be confused with other red-coloured soils which have heavy clay (> 60% clay) textures. These include soils of the Patang, Prang, Kampong Kolam, Apas, Tarat and Sagu Series. All these soils have an oxic horizon while the Ulu Dong Series has a kandic horizon. The Langkawi Series over limestone has many properties similar to the Ulu Dong Series. The Ulu Dong Series generally has lower clay contents and some sand while the Langkawi Series higher clay content and virtually no sand. In Sabah no red-coloured soils with a deep kandic horizon have been mapped but some soils mapped as the Kumansi Series/deep/red variant may have some features similar to the Ulu Dong Series but the Kumansi Series normally have a CECclay of more than 24 cmol (+) kg–1 clay. Soils of the Chat Series (CECclay less than 16 cmol, red-yellow colour class), Melugu (CECclay 16–24 cmol, red-yellow colour class) and Stass (CECclay more than 24 cmol, red-yellow colour class) are similar textured but differ in CECclay values and subsoil colours. The Jakar Series has red colours but has 35–60% clay and a CECclay of more than 24 cmol.
Setting
Soils of the Ulu Dong Series to-date have been mapped on rolling, hilly to steep terrain (slopes in excess of 12% or 6°) at elevations of 30 m to over 200 m (100– 700 feet).
Principal Associated Soils
The Ulu Dong Series has been mapped in association with soils of the Chat Series (CECclay less than 16 cmol, red-yellow colour, clay content more than 60%). Occasionally they have also been mapped in association with soils of the Bungor Series (CECclay less than 16 cmol, clay content 35 to 60%, red-yellow colour class).
Drainage and Permeability <
Soils of the Ulu Dong Series are deep, well drained soils with a good permeability.
Use and Vegetation
Rubber, fruit trees and oil palm are the commonest crops grown on soils of the Ulu Dong Series. Some of these soils may still be under primary forest.
Distribution and Extent
Soils of the Ulu Dong Series have to-date been only mapped in the states of Kelantan, Pahang and Johor. Their actual extent is not fully known.
Series Established
The series was established by Lim (1977) during soil surveys in Pahang State. The source of name is the Kampong Ulu Dong off the Raub-Benta road, Pahang State, Peninsular Malaysia.
Remarks on Classification
Soils of the Ulu Dong Series are classified here according to the Malaysian Soil Taxonomy – Second Approximation (Paramananthan 1998) as a member of the very fine, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic red family of Tipik Lutualemkuts. They are classified as deep, well drained soils having a kandic horizon with red colours and a clay content in excess of 60%. In the Keys to Soil Taxonomy – Eighth Edition (Soil Survey Staff 1998) soils of the Ulu Dong Series are probably classified as Typic Kandiudox. In the FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World – Revised Legend (FAO 1990) these soils would probably be Haplic Nitisols.
Suitability for Agriculture
Soils of the Ulu Dong Series are probably suitable for a wide range of crops with proper management. The slope on which these soils occur, their low fertility status and phosphorus fixation are the main limitations. With good management these soils should be suitable for a wide range of crops such as oil palm, rubber, fruit trees, pepper and cocoa.
Soil Profiles: Table
Table Series
The Table Series is a member of the Table Family which is very fine, oxidic, isohyperthermic, brown Tipik Tempalemoks. It typifies this family and is developed over basalts (basic igneous rocks). Soils of the Table Series are characterized by their deep heavy clay textured oxic horizons with dark yellowish brown colours and an ECEC that is more than 1.5 cmol (+) kg–1 clay in all horizons between 25 to 100 cm depth. Structures are weak, medium to fine subangular blocky and consistence is friable.
Type Location
Soils of the Table Series were first established by Paton (1963) during the Reconnaissance Soil Survey of the Semporna Peninsula. The above pedon was described by staff of the Department of Agriculture, Sabah in the Quoin Hill Agriculture Station near Tawau, Sabah on undulating terrain (4–12% or 2–6° slopes) at an elevation of 200 m (600 feet) under oil palm. Location: Topographic Sheet 4/118/9, 4°03’35” N, 118°01’30” E (Grid Reference 4/118/9 – 915845 m).
Range in Characteristics
Little is known about the range in characteristics of this soil. The colours range from dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4, 4/6, 3/4, 3/6) to dark brown (7.5YR3/2, 3/3, 3/4) and brown (10YR4/3, 4/6 and 7.5YR4/3, 5/3 and 4/4, 5/4). Textures are uniformly heavy clays. These soils are deep and somewhat excessively drained. Structures are weak to moderate medium and fine subangular blocky and consistence is friable. Little is known about the range in chemical characteristics but as noted earlier the permanent charge values range from around 1.0–5 cmol (+) kg–1 clay.
Competing Soils and Their Differences
The typical brown colours of the Table Series is not likely to be confused with many other soils. Soils of the Kuantan Series have many characteristics similar to those of the Table Series and only the permanent charge values separates these two soil types. Soils of the Ambun Series are yellowish red to dark reddish brown in colour (hues of 5YR or 2.5YR) and are developed over ultrabasic rocks on steep slopes. Soils of the Katai Family over alluvium from basic and ultrabasic rocks ranges in colour from reddish brown to yellowish brown but have an argillic horizon. Soils of the Besar Series also have similar colours but have an argillic horizon with high base saturation values. Soils of the Tangga Series and the Sagu Series may also have similar colours but are developed over limestone parent material. The Nobusu Series has similar colours and chemical characteristics but has lower clay contents (35–60%) and is developed on alluvia from basic/ultrabasic rocks.
Setting
Soils of the Table Series typically occur on undulating to rolling terrain (4–24% or 2–12° slopes) at elevations of less than 200 m (< 600 feet).
Principal Associated Soils
Soils of the Table Series have to-date been only mapped in the Tawau-Semporna area in Sabah in association with the Apas Series and the Katai Series. The Apas Series is red in colour while the Katai occurs over alluvia and on undulating to level terrain and has an argillic horizon. As mentioned earlier those with a cation retention capacity of less than 1.5 cmol (+) kg–1 clay should be reclassified as the Kuantan Series.
Drainage and Permeability
Soils of the Table Series are generally well to somewhat excessively drained. Permeability is also generally good.
Use and Vegetation
In the Tawau area in Sabah where these soils have been mapped they have been mainly under oil palm, or logged primary forest. On the Quoin Hill Station where these soils occur other research plots with other cash crops and cocoa were also present.
Distribution and Extent
The Table Series has to-date been only mapped in the Tawau area in Sabah around Quoin Hill. The actual extent of these soils is not known.
Series Established
This soil was established by Paton (1963) during the Reconnaissance Soil Survey of the Semporna Peninsula. The source of name is not known.
Remarks on Classification
The Table Series is classified here according to the Malaysian Soil Taxonomy – Second Approximation (Paramananthan 1998) as a member of the very fine, oxidic, isohyperthermic brown family of Tipik Tempalemoks over basalt parent material. They are classified here as deep soils that have clayey brown coloured oxic horizon in which the permanent charge is more than 1.5 cmol (+) kg–1 clay. In the Keys to Soil Taxonomy – Eighth Edition (Soil Survey Staff 1998) these soils would probably be classified as Typic Hapludox. In the FAO/ UNESCO Soil Map of the World – Revised Legend (FAO 1990) the Table Series would probably be classified as Haplic Ferralsols.
Suitability for Agriculture
The main limitation for agriculture in these soils is their generally low fertility status, high P fixation, and their high permeability. They should be suitable for a wide range of crops.
Soil Profiles: Serdang
Serdang Series
The Serdang Series is a member of the family of fine loamy, siliceous, isohyperthermic, red-yellow Tipik Lutualemkuts. The Serdang Series is developed over mixed sedimentary rocks. They are developed on quartzite, sandstone or conglomerate parent material and are characterized by deep profiles having sandy loam to sandy clay loam textures. They range in colour from yellowish brown to strong brown. Structures are weak subangular blocky and consistence friable. These soils have a kandic horizon (CECclay < 16 cmol (+) kg–1 clay) which is weakly expressed but clay content increases gradually with depth. The CECclay is less than 16 cmol in all subhorizons between 25 to 100 cm depth. No significant clay decrease to 100 cm depth is allowed.
Type Location
The Serdang Series was first established during the survey of the Federal Experimental Station in Serdang by Panton (1954), near Kuala Lumpur. The above pedon was described by Vercruysse (1984) during the Semi-Detailed Soil Survey of the Gual-Periok area, Kelantan on the lower slopes of a low hill at an elevation of 20 m under rubber. Location: Topographic Sheet 3868, 6°01’35” N, 102°01’45” E (Grid Reference 3868 – 480667 m).
Range in Characteristics
Soils of the Serdang Series in spite of its widespread occurrence show fairly consistent morphological properties. The textures range from fine sandy loam, sandy loam, to fine sandy clay loams, in the surface horizon to fine sandy clay loam in the subsoil. The texture often becomes heavier (sandy clay) at depths around 100 cm. Fine sand dominates the sand fraction. Clay contents range from about 18% to about 35% within 50 cm of the surface. Only rarely do heavier textures occur. Colours are uniformly yellowish brown to brownish yellow (10YR5/6, 5/8, 6/6, 6/8). With depths the colours may be strong brown, reddish yellow (7.5YR5/6, 5/8, 6/6, 6/8, 7/6, 7/8; 5YR6/6, 6/8, 7/6, 7/8). The redder colours are more common on the steeper slopes. A red variant with red colours (10R4/6, 4/8, 5/6, 5/8; 2.5YR4/6, 4/8, 5/6, 5/8) has been mapped near Paloh in Johore but this is now included with the Laka Series. Structures are weak to moderate, medium and fine subangular to angular blocky and consistence friable even to over a metre depth. Occasionally a thin vein quartz band may be present but petroplinthite nodules are rare as a rule. These soils have thin patchy clayskins to depths over one metre. The soils are more than one metre deep. On the steeper slopes it grades into the shallower soils of the Nami and Kekura Series. On the footslopes these soils may have a few diffuse mottles at depth. As defined here soils of the Serdang Series must have a CECclay of less than 16 cmol (+) kg–1 clay in all subhorizons between 25 to 100 cm depth.
Competing Soils and Their Differences
Soils of the Serdang Series are not likely to be confused with many other soils. The Kekura and Kedah Series have similar features but the soil depth is less than 50 cm. The Nami and Keledang Series are also similar textured but soil depth ranges from between 50 to 100 cm. The Bungor Series is heavier textured, slightly stronger coloured and has relatively firmer consistence. Mottling is also invariably present in the Bungor Series. The Kemahang Series has all the features of the Serdang Series but the textures are coarse sandy clay loams. Soils of the Serdang Series can be confused with soils of the Bekenu Series (CECclay 16–24 cmol) and the Tanjong Lipat Series (CECclay > 24 cmol) mapped in Sarawak and Sabah but can be separated using the CEC values. Soils of the Serdang Series may be sometimes confused with terrace alluvial soils such as the Holyrood and Rasau Series. These soils occur level to gently undulating on river terraces. The Holyrood has coarse sandy clay loam. While the Rasau fine sandy clay loam textures. Soils of the Tukau Series in Sarawak are also developed on terraces. These soils on terraces get paler with depth and often rounded-pebbles are encountered. Soils of the Serdang Series are not likely to be confused with many other soils. The Kekura and Kedah Series have similar features but the soil depth is less than 50 cm. The Nami and Keledang Series are also similar textured but soil depth ranges from between 50 to 100 cm. The Bungor Series is heavier textured, slightly stronger coloured and has relatively firmer consistence. Mottling is also invariably present in the Bungor Series. The Kemahang Series has all the features of the Serdang Series but the textures are coarse sandy clay loams. Soils of the Serdang Series can be confused with soils of the Bekenu Series (CECclay
Setting
The Serdang Series soils occur on undulating to hilly terrain on quartzite, sandstone and conglomerate parent material. They may occupy the gentler slopes of steep ridges with the Kekura and Nami Series occurring on the steep ridge tops.
Principal Associated Soils
Soils of the Serdang Series have been often associated with soils of the Bungor, Munchong and with the Nami and Kekura Series. The Munchong Series is clayey textured, stronger structured and has an oxic horizon. The Bungor Series also has heavier textures with fine sand dominating. Consistence is also firmer and has reddish mottles at depth. The Nami and Kekura Series are shallower soils in which the parent material is encountered at depths within 100 and 50 cm respectively. As redefined here soils of the Serdang Series may be associated with soils of the Bekenu and Tanjong Lipat Series.
Drainage and Permeability
The Serdang Series is a well drained soil to over 100 cm depth. It has good permeability.
Use and Vegetation
A large variety of crops are grown on these soils. These include crops such as oil palm, rubber, fruit trees etc. Many areas with such soils are still under primary forest.
Distribution and Extent
To-date, except for the State of Perlis, these soils have been mapped in every state in Peninsular Malaysia. They have mainly been mapped in association with other soils and consequently their actual extent is not known. These as defined here may also be present in Sabah and Sarawak.
Series Established
This soil was established during the survey of the Federal Experimental Station in Serdang (Panton 1954). The source of name is Serdang Village near Kuala Lumpur.
Remarks on Classification
Soils of the Serdang Series are classified according to the Malaysian Soil Taxonomy – Second Approximation (Paramananthan 1998) as a member of the fine loamy, siliceous, isohyperthermic, red-yellow family of Tipik Lutualemkuts. They are classified as soils having a deep kandic horizon with between 18 and 35% clay content. In the Keys to Soil Taxonomy – Eighth Edition (Soil Survey Staff 1998), soils of the Serdang Series would probably be Typic Kandiudults. In the FAO/ UNESCO Soil Map of the World – Revised Legend (FAO 1990) the Serdang Series would be classified as Haplic Nitisols.
Suitability for Agriculture
The deep, friable soils of the Serdang Series appear to be well suited for a wide range of crops. However these soils on account of their loamy texture and friable consistence are prone to erosion. Thus the terrain and consequently their erodibility are limitations for the utilisation of these soils. These soils also have a low fertility status and moisture retention capabilities. Thus in areas prone to moisture stress these soils should be managed more carefully.
